Solutions to Homework Assignments Essay Example

Solutions to Homework Assignments Paper The line is GAG (the last line on the front page of the individual tax return). Though both types Of deductions may reduce a taxpayers taxable income, for GAG deductions are generally more valuable to taxpayers because they reduce GAG which may allow taxpayers to deduct more of their from GAG deductions (and other tax benefits) that are subject to GAG limitations. From GAG deductions dont affect GAG. 11. Why are some deductions called above-the-line deductions and others are called towel-line deductions? What is the line? The line is adjusted gross income (GAG). GAG is considered the line because of the significance it plays in the amount of deductions allowed from GAG. for GAG deductions are called bother-line deductions because they are deducted in determining GAG. From GAG deductions are called below-the-line deductions because they are deducted after GAG has been determined. They are deducted from GAG to arrive at taxable income, Below-the-line deductions may be subject to limitations based on the taxpayers GAG. 2. What is the difference between a tax deduction and a tax credit? Is one more beneficial than the Other? Explain. A deduction generally reduces taxable income dollar for dollar (although from GAG deductions may not reduce taxable income dollar for dollar). This translates into a tax savings in the I mount Of the deduction times the marginal tax rate. In contrast, credits reduce a taxpayers taxes payable dollar for dollar. Thus. Generally speaking, credits are more valua ble than deductions. 20. We will write a custom essay sample on Solutions to Homework Assignments specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Solutions to Homework Assignments specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Solutions to Homework Assignments specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Isabella provides of the support for her father Hastings who lives in an apartment by himself and has no gross income, Is it possible for Isabella to claim a dependency exemption for her father? Explain. Because her father meets the relationship and gross income test for a qualifying relative, the support test is the only obstacle for Isabella to claim a dependency exemption for her father _ The basic support test requires that Isabella must have provided more than half of the support for her father in order to claim a dependency exemption for him. Because Isabella provides only 30% of her fathers support, she does not meet the basic test. However, Isabella could potentially qualify to claim a dependency exemption for her father under a multiple support agreement. For Isabella to qualify, the following requirements must be met: 1. No other taxpayer paid over half of her fathers support. 2. Isabella and at least one other person provided more than half the support of her father, and Isabella and the other person or persons would have men allowed to claim an exemption for Hastings except for the fact that neither met the support test. . Isabella provided over 10% of her fathers support (she provided 30%). 4 The other person or persons who provided more than 10% of Hastings support must provide a signed statement to Isabella agreeing not to claim Hastings as a dependent. Isabella would include the names, addresses, and social security numbers of each other person on a Form 2120- which she would include with her tax return for the year, 31 Rank the following three single taxpayers in order of the magnitude of taxable income (from lowest to highest) and explain your results. Aimed Gross Income Deductions Poor GAG Itemized Deductions $ 80,000 8,000 0 Baker S 80,000 4,000 4,000 Chin S 80,000 0 8,000 Chin has the highest taxable income, followed by Baker and then Aimed. Chins taxable income is highest because he had no for GAG deductions, and Aimed has the lowest because he had the most for GAG deductions. Baker did not benefit from the itemized deductions because they did not exceed the standard deduction. Chin only benefited from the itemized deductions to the extent the deductions exceeded the standard deduction. See the following analysis: Description Aimed Baker Chin Computation (1) Gross income (2) For GAG deductions (3) Adjusted gross income (4) Standard deduction (5) Itemized deductions (6) Greater of standard deductions or itemized deductions (7) personal and dependency exemptions 580,000 (8, COO) $72,000 (6,100) 0 (6, 100) 580,000 (4, COO) $76,000 (6,100) (4,000) (6,100) 580,000 0 580,000 (6, 100) (8, COO) (8,000) Aimed: (4) > (5) Baker: (4) > (5) Chin: (S) > (4) (1)+ (2) Single taxpayer (3,900) 3,900 x I (personal exemption) Taxable income 562,000 $66,000 $68,100 32. Caraways husband passed away in 2012. She needs to determine whether jasmine, her 17-year old step-daughter who is single, qualifies as her dependent in 2013. Jasmine is a resident but not a citizen of the united States. She lived in Cassowary;s home from June IS through December 31 , 2013. Cassowary provided more than halt of Jasmines support for the 2013. A. Is Cassowary allowed to claim a dependency exemption for Jasmine for 2013? Yes, Cassowary may claim a dependency exemption for Jasmine in 2013. Jasmine meets the citizenship/ residency test because she is a resident Of the United States, and she meets he requirements to be considered Caraways qualifying child as follows: Test Relationship Age Residence Support Jasmine Yes, stepdaughter qualifies Jasmine is under 19 at the end of the year Jasmine had the same principal residence as Cassowary for more than half the year Jasmine does not provide more than half her own support. B. Would Cassowary be allowed to claim a dependency exemption for Jasmine for 2013 if Cassowary provided more than half of Jasmines support in 2013, Jasmine lived in Caraways home from July 15 through December 31 of 2013, and Jasmine reported gross income of $5,000 in 2013? No. Jasmine would fail the qualifying child test because she did not have the same principal residence as Cassowary for more than half the year. Jasmine would fail the qualifying relative test because her gross income exceeds the 53,900 personal exemption amount for 2013. C. Would Cassowary be allowed to claim a dependency exemption for Jasmine for 2013 if Cassowary provided more than half of Jasmines support in 201 3, Jasmine lived in Caraways home from July 15 through December 31 of 2013, and Jasmine reported gross income of $2,500 in 2013? Yes, Jasmine would qualify as Caraways qualifying relative as allows: Test Relationship Support Gross income Jasmine Yes, stepdaughter qualifies Cassowary provided more than half Of Jasmines support Jasmines gross income does not exceed the dependency exemption amount. 44. Gary and Lakes were married on December 31 last year. They are now preparing their taxes for the April 15 deadline and are unsure of their filing status. A. What filing status options do Gary and Lakes have for last year? To be married for filing status purposes, taxpayers must be married at the end of the year. Although Gary and Lakes were married on the last day of the year, hey are still considered married for the entire year tort filing purposes. Gary and Lakes may file as married filing jointly, or they may elect to file as married filing separately. B. Assume instead that Gary and Lakes were married on January I of this year, What is their filing status for last year (neither has been married before and neither had any dependents last year)? Single. Gary and Lakes were not married at the end of the year, therefore they must both file single, 48 In each of the following independent situations, determine the taxpayers filing status and the number of personal and dependency exemptions the sprayer is allowed to claim. A. Prank is single and supports his 17-year-old brother, Bill. Bill earned $3,000 and did not live with Frank. Single with two exemptions; one personal and one dependency exemption for Bill. 4 Frank Will file as single, not head Of household. Bill is not a qualifying person for purposes of the head of household test because Bill did not live as member of Franks household for more than half the year. Frank can claim an exemption for Bill because Bill qualifies as Franks qualifying relative as follows: Test Relationship Age Residence Support Gross income b. Bill Yes, Bill is taxpayers brother, Not applicable to qualifying relative Not applicable to qualifying relative Yes, more than half of Bills support is provided by Frank. Yes, Bills gross income ($3,000) is less than the exemption amount, Geneva and her spouse reside with their son, Steve, who is a 20-year-old undergraduate student at State University. Steve earned $13,100 at a part-time summer job, but he deposited this money in a savings account for graduate school. Geneva paid all of the $12,000 cost of supporting Steve. Married filing jointly with two personal exemptions and one dependency exemption for Steve Steve meets the test to be Geneva and her husbands qualifying child as follows: Test Relationship Age Residence Support Steve Yes, Steve is the taxpayers son. Yes, under age 24 and a full-time student (and younger than parents). Yes, temporary absences away at school count as time in the parents home Yes, even though the Steve earned $13,100, he did not use any of that money to provide for his support. Staves parents provided more than half (all, in fact) Of his support for the year. A qualifying child is not subject to the gross income test. Hams spouse died last year, and Hams has not remarried. Hams supports his father Reggae, age 78, who lives in a nursing home and had interest income this year of SO,500. Head of household with two exemptions. Hams is not a qualifying widower because he does not maintain a household for a dependent child. However, he does qualify for head of household because he is not married and he pays more than halt the cost of maintaining a separate household that is the principal place of abode for his father, and his father also qualifies as his dependent (as a qualifying relative) as follows: Test Relationship Age Reggae Yes, Reggae is Hams father. Not applicable to qualifying relative Residence Support Gross income Not applicable to qualifying relative Yes, Hams provides more than half Of Regiss support. Yes, Regiss gross income of $2,500 is less than the exemption amount. Because Reggae is considered to be Hams qualifying relative (and a qualifying person for purposes of the head of household filing status). Hams may also claim a dependency exemption for Reggae. D. Irene is married but has not seen her spouse since February. She supports her spouses 18-year-old child Dolores, who lives with Irene. Dolores earned $4,500 this year. Head of household with two exemptions. Irene qualifies for being treated as unmarried for the year (abandoned spouse) as follows: Test Married Separate Return Maintains Home Time Separated Irene Yes, Irene is still married at the end of the year, Yes, Irene files a separate return from her spouse, Yes, Irene provides more than halt the cost to maintaining a home tort a quailing child. Yes, Irene has not lived with her spouse for the last six months of the year. Because she is treated as though she were unmarried, she may file as head of household because she pays more than half the costs (for more than half the usable year) of maintaining a household that is the principal place of abode for a dependent who is her qualifying child. Dolores is Irene qualifying child, as determined below: Test Relationship Age Residence Support Dolores Yes, Dolores is the taxpayers stepchild. Yes, under age 19 (and younger than Irene) Yes, Dolores lived with taxpayer for more than half of the year _ Yes, Dolores did not provide more than half of her own support. Irene may claim one personal exemption for herself and one dependency exemption for Dolores. E. Assume the same facts as in part d. Also assume that Craig is Urines husband. Craig supports his 12-year-old son Ethan, who lives with Craig. Ethan did not earn any income. Head of household with two exemptions. Craig qualifies for being treated as unmarried (abandoned spouse rules) as follow. Was: 6 Test Married Separate Return Maintains Home Time Separated Irene Yes, Craig is still married at the end of the year. Yes, Craig files a separate return trot his spouse. Yes, Craig provides more than halt the cost to maintaining a home for a qualifying child. Yes, Craig has not lived with his spouse tort the last six months of the year. Because he is treated as though she were unmarried, he may file as head of should because he pays more than half the costs (for more than half the taxable year) of maintaining a household that is the principal place of abode for a dependent who is his qualifying child. Ethan is Crags qualifying child, as determined below: Test Relationship Age Residence Support Dolores Yes, Ethan is the taxpayers child. Yes, under age I g (and younger than Craig) Yes, Ethan lived with taxpayer for more than half of the year. Yes, Ethan did not provide more than half Of his own support. Craig may claim one personal exemption for himself and one dependency exemption for Ethan. Note that both Irene in part d. ND Craig may claim head of household filing status because they both qualify to be treated as unmarried for filing status purposes. 54 Demeanor and Jeanine Jackson have been married for 20 years and have four children who quality as their dependents (Damascus, Jeanine, Michael, and Candace).

Electrum Metal Alloy or Green Gold

Electrum Metal Alloy or Green Gold Electrum is a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver with a small amount of other metals. The man-made alloy of gold and silver is chemically similar to electrum  but usually is called green gold. Electrum Chemical Composition Electrum consists of gold and silver, often with small amounts of copper, platinum, or other metals. Copper, iron, bismuth, and palladium commonly occur in natural electrum. The name may be applied to any gold-silver alloy that is 20-80% gold and 20-80% silver, but unless it is the natural alloy, the synthesized metal is more correctly termed green gold,  gold, or silver (depending which metal is present in the higher amount).  The ratio of gold to silver in natural electrum varies according to its source. Natural electrum found today in  Western  Anatolia contains  70% to 90% gold. Most examples of ancient electrum are coins, which contain increasingly lower amounts of gold, so its believed the raw material was alloyed further to conserve profit. The word electrum has also been applied to the alloy called German silver, although this is an alloy that is silver in color, not elemental composition. German silver typically consists of  60% copper, 20% nickel and 20% zinc.   Electrum Appearance Natural electrum ranges in color from pale gold to bright gold, depending on the amount of the element gold present in the alloy. Brassy-colored electrum contains a higher amount of copper. Although the ancient Greeks called the metal white gold, the modern meaning of the phrase white gold  refers to a different alloy that contains gold  but appears silvery or white. Modern green gold, consisting of gold and silver, actually does appear yellowish -green.  Intentional addition of cadmium may  enhance the green color, although cadmium is toxic, so this limits the uses of the alloy. The addition of 2% cadmium produces a light green color, while 4% cadmium yields a deep green color. Alloying with copper deepens the color of the metal. Electrum Properties The exact properties of electrum depend on the metals in the alloy and their percentage. Generally, electrum has a high reflectivity, is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity, is ductile and malleable, and is fairly corrosion resistant. Electrum Uses Electrum has been used as currency, to make jewelry and ornaments, for drinking vessels, and as an exterior coating for pyramids and obelisks. The earliest known coins in the Western world were minted of electrum and it remained  popular for coinage until about 350 BC. Electrum is harder and more durable than pure gold, plus the techniques for gold refining were not widely known in ancient times. Thus, electrum was a popular and valued precious metal. Electrum History As a natural metal, electrum was obtained and used by early man.  Electrum was used to make the earliest metal coins, dating back at least to the 3rd millennium BC in Egypt. The Egyptians also used the metal to coat important structures. Ancient drinking vessels were made of electrum. The modern Nobel Prize medal consists of green gold (synthesized electrum) plated with gold. Where Can You Find Electrum? Unless you visit a museum or win the Nobel Prize, you best chance of finding electrum is to seek the natural alloy. In ancient times, the chief source of electrum was  Lydia, around the Pactolus River, a  tributary of the Hermus, now called the  Gediz Nehriin in Turkey. In the modern world, the primary source of electrum is Anatolia. Smaller amounts also may be found in Nevada, in the USA.

Learning to read and write Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Learning to read and write - Essay Example Fredrick Douglass, in his article â€Å"Learning to Read and write,† gives an account of slavery and how depriving it was to him as well as other slaves under the abolition movement. He takes us through his seven year life under his master and mistress in a captivating manner that clearly brings out the situation many slaves had to encounter. The master was consistently against his slave’s learning while the mistress initially supported and even thought him how to write but later succumbed to the husband’s directives not to have Fredrick literate. But out of a great personal resolve and determination he was able to succeed in learning how to read and write. The mistress was such a kind woman and initially treated Fredrick just the way she supposed a human being should be treated by another. She even could teach him how to read and write but with time gave in to the husband’s directions not to do that. She not only stopped instructing him but also discouraged anyone from instructing him. But Fredrick had been given the inch when the mistress taught him the alphabet and therefore nothing could stop him from taking the ell. He therefore used all strategies available to acquire literacy and understand what certain words like slavery, abolition and others meant. Generally slaves were seen as lesser humans with limited capability in academics and other fields of life. They did not have any constitutional rights hence most of them were even not allowed to marry, those who were married were separated from their families and their children could be taken and sold off any time without their permission. They were used in lotteries, were not allowed to testify in courts and were not entitled to education. Their movements as well as interactions were closely monitored and they had to carry around the pass every time. (Brumley, 1999). The slaves therefore employed different strategies sometimes to reverse their situations. The slave in

Sauer's Cultural Landscape Geography Assignment

Sauer's Cultural Landscape Geography - Assignment Example Under the influence of Carl Sauer, cultural landscape geography developed as the main branch of geography.   â€Å"Sauer was explicitly concerned to counter an environmental determinism which had dominated the American geography of the previous generation, within which human agency was given scant autonomy in the shaping of the visible landscape ».He believed that culture is the main force in shaping all visible features of the physical environment of the earth’s surface and he calls it ‘human cultural activities.’ They provoke action, responses, and adaptation by humans. He touches the cultural traits imposed by Europeans during colonization on various parts of the world and says that this cultural imposition on pre-existing cultures, shaped these new cultures in a different way. â€Å"Culture is the agent, the natural area is the medium, the cultural landscape is the result. Under the influence of a given culture, itself changing through time, the landscap e undergoes development, passing through phases, and probably reaching ultimately the end of its cycle of development. With the introduction of a different – that is an alien – culture, a rejuvenation of the cultural landscape sets in, or a new landscape is superimposed on remnants of an older one,† Sauer (1925), The Morphology of Landscape.† University of California Publications.French regional geography was a model of what Sauer propagated. French seafarers were crowned with initial success and the French school of geography was highly influential. It ‘†¦became known for its descriptive regional monographs presented in a lucid and flowing manner, human and historical geography was its forte.’ Even though there were criticisms that the emphasis has shifted several times between the approaches and viewpoints, all geographers had recognized their interdependence and complimentary importance. There is no denying that French regional geograph y also reflected the historical and military developments of the country. Talking about a hundred years’ war between France and Britain, Sauer says (Northern Mists) that France lost most of her ports and her north and southwest regions were ravaged.

Child cognitive imparment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Child cognitive imparment - Essay Example The disease is defined by the center of disease control by a score of 70 and below on the child’s intellectual test capabilities i.e. the IQ test. There are four levels of a child’s cognitive impairments. A child suffering from mild cognitive impairments has an IQ test of 50 to 70 while moderate cognitive impairment has an IQ test of 35 to 55. Severe cognitive impairments with an IQ test of 20 to 40 and profound cognitive impairment where the child has an IQ test of below 20.physical disabilities will usually impact on the way a child controls its body, move and the cognitive and intellectual disabilities will affect the way the way a child thinks and learns. Children develop at different rates. However, there are certain milestones that the healthy child ought to reach by a specific age. The child’s cognitive impairments will affect the developmental milestones of the child (Webster et al., 2006). Cognitive impairments are as a result of a number of factors. Majority of the instances of cognitive impairments are as a result of genetic and chromosomal disorders. Cognitive impairments are also attributed to injuries and illness that occur to the mother during pregnancy or infancy period. Extreme cases of malnutrition to the child, inadequate medical accessibility among the infants, exposure to environmental toxins and chemicals can attribute to cognitive impairments among children. Other causes attributed include genetic diseases, infections on the child such as meningitis, parasitic infections to the child, cerebral malaria, in-utero alcohol and drug exposure during pregnancy, asphyxia, low birth weight, endocrine disorders and head injuries to the children. Most of these causes are preventable. However, it is difficult to prevent these conditions in developing countries. With the many possible causes, it is difficult to define the specific cause of cognitive defect on a child (Ferguson, Hall, Riley, & Moore, 2011). Signs and symptoms

Overview Of Reality Television Programming

Overview Of Reality Television Programming Reality television programming has been around since the first broadcast of Candid Camera in the late 1940s, but this type of programming became more popular in recent years as a result of different factors. Rowen, (2000) attributed the debut of the Survivor in the year 2000 as the beginning of the infiltration of reality programming in todays television landscape. This type of television programming has now becoming popular among different television audience globally and has also gained recognition of the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences who in 2003 added Best Reality Show as an Emmy category. While studies in reality television are relatively limited despite the recent surge in its programming, efforts is hereby made in this study to review or summarize previous research on reality television programming. The increase in reality television programming may undoubtedly be related to with the increasing number of cable channels, which allows advertisers to reach smaller markets (Hiebert and Gibbons, 2000) with the majority of reality television programming is geared towards the individuals under twenty five years old (Frank, 2003). MTV has been presenting the Real World to this target younger demographic for more than ten years. Frank (2003) suggests that younger viewers are attracted to reality television programmes because the programmes show individuals and situations which relates to what they are used to on daily basis. According to Rowen (2000), the popularity of reality television began with the debut of Survivor which was first aired in 2000. From thence, this genre of television programming started gaining attraction and attention on network primetime television. This was when reality programmes started to target an older demographic. There is a variety of programmes that still target the younger demographic, but now there are more programmes that target a much wider demographic. For example, network primetime programmes such as The Apprentice target the 18 49 demographic (Rowen, 2000). Because of this age range, it is most likely that a greater percentage of individuals now watch reality television today than in the time past. Nabi, Biely, Morgan, and Stitt, (2003) examined the genre of reality television programming itself. It was observed that a multidimensional space analysis of all television programmes indicates that reality television is a genre that is distinct from all of the other pre-existing genres. However, not all reality programmes can be considered as one cohesive genre. There are two dimensions with the first one is presented as a continuum due to its suitability for primetime programming. The second dimension is fiction-real, this is a continuum based on whether the programmes were portrayed as fictional or realistic based programmes. Some reality programmes have been listed as fictional because for some reasons, audience members do not perceive them as realistic (Nabi et al, 2003). Interestingly, not all reality programmes were classified as reality, and not all fictional programmes were classified as fictional. In another study, Nabi, Stitt, Halford and Finnerty, (2006) used multidimensional scaling to understand the subgroups of reality television programming. There were two dimensions along which viewers thought about reality television romance and competitiveness. Dating programmes were found to be a unique type of programming with no relationship with other programme types. The other subgroups of reality television programming were found to be fluid and difficult for viewers to separate one from another because of the overlap among the categories. As a way of creating better understanding, Nabi et al (2006) encourages reality television researchers to focus on the qualities of the programmes and not the categories. Some research has sought to discover why people watch reality television programmes. Reiss and Wiltz (2004) in a study, asked individuals to rate themselves on Reisss 16 basic life motives and also to report how much they viewed reality programmes and how much they enjoyed these programmes. Results indicated that the appeal to reality television programmes was dependent on the amount of reality television programmes watched by the individuals. The more reality programmes an individual reported liking, the more status oriented the individual is likely to be. Individuals found to place a higher value on vengeance were found to be more motivated by social life, less motivated by honour, more focused on order, and more concerned with romance. Reiss and Wiltz (2004) found that the reality television programmes that people prefer to watch are those that stimulate their motives and fundamental values the most. For example, people who place premium on romance in relationships are very much l ikely to watch The Bachelor, but if they value work or entrepreneurship, then they may prefer to go for The Apprentice reality programme. Therefore, it can be concluded that the motif for watching reality television programmes is based on their individual values and desires. Many individuals would easily indicate that they enjoy watching other people on reality television programmes, but this is not to say that the competitors are not aware that they are being watched. Nabi et al (2003) in their study concludes that people watch reality programmes because they enjoy watching real people instead of actors and that the uses and gratifications sought by reality television audiences is the reason why regular viewers watch the programmes because they find it entertaining, for the enjoyment of watching other peoples life, and the self-awareness they receive from these programmes. Cognitive and emotional predictors of reality television were examined by Nabi et al (2006) and found that happiness, para-social relationships, dramatic challenge social self-awareness, comparison and negative outcomes are factors which affect the enjoyment of reality television programmes. It was also found that reality television programmes did not appeal much to the audience when compared to other genres of television programming. However, this was attributed to the limited ability of the programmes to evoke positive emotions rather than the negative emotions which the programmes provoked. They also determined that perceived reality was not related to enjoyment from viewing reality television programming and that various dimensions of perceived reality were related, but not as a whole. Hall (2006) conducted focus groups to understand why participants enjoy watching reality television programming. It was found that participants enjoyed reality programmes most because of their humour and suspense as well as the fulfilment of social functions which participants get from watching the programmes. The participants noted that they have watched reality programmes with friends, and also discussed about the reality programmes they watched with their friends too. The study revealed that the participants view of reality television programming as realistic was just weak as the criteria for judging (realness) were different from show to show and changed as new programmes were broadcast. This therefore, makes perceived reality to be a difficult concept to measure. Papacharissi and Mendelson (2007) examines the gratifications sought from reality television and their findings indicates that respondents reported watching reality television programmes mainly to pass the time or for e ntertainment purposes. They noted that the respondents who reported watching for entertainment reasons were most likely to perceive the programmes as being real. Barton (2006) examined reality television programming and gratifications obtained by audience members. Findings from the study indicated that the content of the reality show influenced the gratifications obtained by the viewers. A new gratification known as personal utility which has not been studied was identified in the study. Personal utility was identified as one of the strongest predictors of overall gratifications obtained by reality television viewers. Personal utility refers to the viewer gaining something personally useful from the programme. It is therefore important to understand that viewers watch for different reasons. These reasons may lead to differing perceptions by viewers and thus differing effects. Therefore, individual difference variables have also been found to moderate why people watch reality television programmes (Barton 2006). Nabi et al (2003) while examining the gratifications received from reality television programming, discovered sex as a significant distinguishing factor. For instance, men were noted to be more entertained by reality programmes and as such, formed para-social relationships more often than women do. Reiss and Wiltz (2004) in their study examined how sex moderates the effects of reality television programming on their respondents and reported that they did not find sex as a significant influence on reality television outcomes. Rather, age was found to be a significant influence on reality television outcomes. Younger viewers reported becoming more self-aware and entertained from watching reality programmes, while older viewers reported engaging in social comparisons from viewing reality television. Race was also found to have an impact on media use outcomes. For instance, whites were found to identify with the characters, while non-whites were found to learn more information from reali ty television programming (Nabi et al, 2003). 2.1.2 Perceived Reality and Reality Television Programming Before the development of reality television programmes, perceived reality has been generating much interest among media researchers. Potters (1988) conceptual definition of perceived reality is a construct composed of three dimensions, with the first being defined as the belief in the literal reality of television messages (p.31). This component, known also as the magic window deals with how much the viewer believes that the mediated message from television reflects the outside world. Secondly, utility is defined as the practicality of the viewer applying what is viewed on television in his/her daily living. It also denotes the importance and extent to which people can relate the information they get from television into their own lives. Thirdly, identity refers to relating with a character or personality television programmes and this is also seen as the extent to which the viewer thinks a character plays a part in the viewers actual life (Potter, 1988). Magic window, utility, and identity are central to the understanding of a viewers perception of reality because each of these components will affect how a viewer perceives reality in a television programme. In examining perceived reality, Cavender and BondMaupin (1993) examined crime reality television programming, looking at programmes like Americas Most Wanted. This was done based on story selection, the techniques of cinematographic as well as the producers claims. Crime based reality television programmes were found to depict a very real sense of danger to the audience as they were found to be high in the identity component. Because of the images presented in crime reality programme programmes, it was easy for the viewers to identify with the characters that were presented as victims. Cavender and BondMaupin (1993) notes that participating in reality programmes means that the viewers are now part of the reality. This obviously makes it difficult to distinguish the reality in the programme from any other aspect of life. Their study suggests that reality programming has a unique form because of the presentation of realistic characters, settings, and plot. Another study which examined the perceived reality of reality television programmes is Meng and Lugalambi (2003). The study found that respondents did not view reality programmes as real. Perceived believability of the program mediated the relationship between the type of programme viewed and the perceived utility. The researchers argue that the best manner to examine perceived reality is by the degree of personal utility that the viewer receives from the reality programmes. 2.1.3 Defining reality television programming Reality television programmes are gradually becoming the toast of television stations and networks in recent times (Hall, 2006 and Stern, 2007). Since the success of the genres first big network hit, the Survivor (CBS), the number of reality programmes on television has multiplied, both on broadcast and cable networks. To Seibel and Kerschbaumer, (2004), Reality television programmes were first recognized as an official genre of television in 2004 even though it has become immensely popular in the years prior. Reality programmes or, as they are alternatively known, unscripted dramas have been somewhat difficult to define, due to the rapid growth which has caused the genre to expand into various forms (Hall, 2006; Nabi et al., 2003). While they are all considerably different, programmes like the Big Brother Show, Biggest Looser, The Apprentice, Gulder Ultimate Search, Survivor, Fear Factor, etc. have all been considered to be reality programmes, although each is structured in a slightly different form. There must be caution in describing reality television as simply programming that represents reality because this would force the inclusion of news programmes and talk programmes, which, are generally not considered as part of the genre. Nabi et al (2003, p. 304) while attempting to situate the precincts of reality television programming described them as programmes that film real people as they live out events (contrived or otherwise) in their lives, as these events occur. This description b ecomes Important as it assumes that the events on the television screen are chronological, and that the participants are not working from a script, the show is filmed in a non-studio environment and that the purpose of the programme must be entertainment. While it leaves room for a wide range of programming, this definition excludes talk programmes which, in some ways, draw upon some of the same appeals and strategies to attract viewers, and have been considered as forerunners of reality television (Reality Television, 2004). However, Hall, (2004) notes that the popular press has considered programmes, such as American Idol and Shocking Behaviour Caught on Tape, to be reality fare, even though they do not meet these criteria. Deery (2004) notes that reality television does not necessarily have to be realistic, nor does it have to depict common or everyday experiences. Deery further notes that the reality of reality television programmes is usually translated as the experience of rea l or ordinary people (i.e., unknown non-actors) in an actual and unscripted environment. It does not require that the situation must be ordinary, but that there should be a particular kind of viewer access. The definition of reality television to audiences seems to be as inconsistent as it is in academia, though slightly more inclusive. In a study of the public perception of reality programmes, Hall (2006) notes that some programmes such as Real World and Cops were unanimously considered by most respondents to be of the reality genre. Most of the respondents in the study believe that the presence of non-actors behaving independently from any sort of script was a mandatory criterion for reality television. Additionally, for some, a competition element helped define a show in the reality category. Hall noted that this was not necessarily a criterion because the competition was realistic, but rather that it seemed to be a central element for a large number of programmes that have been labelled as reality. The most defining characteristic for these research participants was the realism factor. Perhaps the most central element in determining the strength of a particular programmes membership in the programming category, however, was the nature of the show when compared to real life situations. Hall (2006, p. 198) notes that the understanding that the programme was non-scripted, which carries the implication that the behaviour of the cast members is self-determined and a true expression of their own personalities and wills, was repeatedly implied to be a determining factor of whether a show should be considered a reality programme. It seems, however, that a viewers task of determining whether or not the content of a programme is real may not be a simple task. Stern (2007) points out that the reality element of reality television is, at best, only a claim. The desire of producers to create an entertaining programme often leads them to distort events to make them more dramatic. The result is a programme that dances on the line between truth and fiction, often leaving the viewers confused about what is real and what is not. Stern notes further that manipulation of reality can manifest as producers interference with the cast, in addition to creative editing techniques. 2.2 Features of reality television (Characteristics) Within the confines of reality television programming exists two sub-genres: voyeur-based programmes and competition-based programmes with the emphasis within each being on the different dramatic aspects of the reality being captured. The first sub-genre, voyeur-based programmes, can most closely be compared to a documentary-style production. Programmes in this category are sometimes referred to as docu-dramas or docu-soaps (Jones, 2003). The component of producer involvement which is generally lacking in documentaries is accentuated in the voyeur-based programmes. However, this is a major area of differences between voyeur-based programming and actual documentaries. That is to say, voyeur-based reality programmes highlight the fact that the participants are incorporating the production units into their daily routines. The second sub-genre of reality-based television is competition-based programmes. These programmes tend to bear a resemblance with traditional game shows, with the distinguishing factor being that game shows typically do not offer comprehensive surveillance of the contestants. The competition-based programmes focus on how human interaction is affected when contestants are forced to interact with each other while trying to succeed against each other in various events. The following are the qualities that make a programme reality based. Reality-based programming is not scripted The most fundamental criterion for a television show to fall within the reality genre is that is must not have a script for the participants or contestants. This means that their actions and spoken words must be spontaneous. In its place, reality-based programming relies on established rules that govern the way the contestants interact with each other and their environment. These rules in essence act as a substitute for scripted materials in that they provide the contestants with a framework that dictates how their exchanges will be enacted. The idea behind this is that it offers an alternative to the predictability of fictional programming (Andrejevic, 2003). Reality-based programming involves ordinary people instead of actors It is argued that one thing that makes reality programming appealing is that it draws its contestants directly from the audience. Dovey (2000, p. 86) notes that ordinary people and their dramatic experiences are the staple of Reality television Syvertsen (2001 p. 319) describes ordinary people as, those people who are not known in the media, they are not experts, celebrities or newsworthy for any other reason people who are, in principle, interchangeable with one another. Andrejevic (2003, p.4).) notes that part of what makes reality-based programming appealing is its lottery-like ability to make a star out of nobodys'(sic) Reality-based programming is characterised by spontaneous actions The freedom for contestants to act on instinct or to adapt as they deem fit to any situation is a key element in what makes reality programming entertaining and unique. In most ways, the contestants are in control of the programme. There are rules governing the conduct of the contestants and operating within those set rules is an attribute possessed by reality programming alone. Andrejevic, (2003, p. 103) quoting The Real World and Road Rules producer, Jon Murray, said that we dont have a lot of control during the production process, what we have is the control to make choices during editing. The naturalness and ingenuity displayed by the contestants is what makes reality-based programmes unique from other forms of unscripted programming such as traditional game shows. Ultimately, with reality programming, viewers get what really happens first hand since there are no re-takes or re-shoots as only that which is natural and uncontrived will be captured and ultimately aired. When looked at in terms of the benefits of spontaneity compared to traditional scripted programming, Andrejevic makes the case that the free-will of the contestants can prove to be one of the most powerful tools reality television possesses. Andrejevic, (2003) concludes that in reality programming, content becomes detached from the normal concept of scriptwriters and directors, which is now replaced by the spontaneous rhythms of real conflict and real romance. Some element of producer involvement exists in Reality-based programming Reality-based programming can be seen as a contrived reality where the producers create the reality in which the contestants live in. This could mean the establishment of rules for how they will get food as on Gulder Ultimate Search, Survivor and Big Brother, or requiring that they regularly update the audience through confessionals or video diary entries as on Big Brother, Gulder Ultimate Search, and The Real World Show. This is one of the key distinctions that have been made between reality-based programming and documentaries. Dovey (2000) clearly notes that interviewing participants, involving directors, producers, or cameramen in the production or in any way interacting with the subject of a documentary is considered interference and is a serious taboo in documentary filmmaking. These techniques, however, have all been used extensively in reality-based programming. There is a comprehensive surveillance of subjects in Reality-based programmes The primary component that distinguishes reality-based programmes from similar forms of entertainment including traditional game shows and programmes is that it provides the viewer with a perspective of how the participants are feeling and behaving outside the confines of a limited event. For example, viewers are not given the opportunity to see how contestants interact with each other after the final round has been played. This is exactly what separates reality-based programming from traditional game shows (Andrejevic 2003). According to Andrejevic (2003, p. 102), the difference between reality-based programming and traditional game shows lies in the fact that they (reality television programmes) are based not on the documentation of exceptional moments but on the surveillance of the rhythm of day-to-day life. This last criterion shows programmes such as The Debators, Maltina Family Dance All, and NBCs Fear Factor cannot be considered as reality-based programmes. This is because, the producers of these programmes shows film exceptional moments and do not offer comprehensive surveillance of the contestants behaviours and interactions with others. 2.3 Reality television programmes and young audience Reality programmes has generally been thought to appeal to a lower-income demographic (Nabi et al., 2003). The reality genre in general has been criticized as being exploitive of some of the worst characteristics, behaviours and ranks of the human race, and was long considered by the television industry to be low-brow entertainment (Freeman, 2001). Even as reality television programmes began to be accepted by the networks, advertisers were still sceptical about investing in them, primarily discouraged by audience demographic and possibly questionable materials in the programmes. Supporting Freemans view, Atkinson and Fine (2004, p. 1) averred that Advertisers once didnt like the thought of associating with what they regarded as often sleazy down-market fare A study in 2001 confirmed advertisers suspicions when it found that 58% of regular reality audiences were in the middle to low income bracket, with annual incomes falling below $50,000 (Gardyn, 2001, p. 1). Carter (2003) notes that reality television appeals to a younger group of viewers between the age ranges of 18 49 years, or even narrower, between 18 30 years. This demographic profiles of the audience he notes, represents a coveted demographic for advertisers. 2.3.1 The appeal in reality television The appeal of reality television ranges from mere voyeurism to a hope that it offers insights into the human condition. Nabi et al. (2003) found that the initial draw for casual viewers is generally related to boredom, while regular viewers of reality television tune in to be entertained. Some of the appeal may be the lure of watching real people on television. A study in 2001 revealed that 37% of the Americans polled preferred to watch real people on television, as opposed to scripted actors (Gardyn, 2001). However, Nabi, Finnerty, Halford and Stitt (2006) suggests that some of the appeal of reality television may not reside in the quality of the reality, but rather in the drama and suspense, elements of good storytelling, that are often found in reality programmes. Voyeurism has also been cited as a gratification of watching reality television (Hall, 2004). Although Nabi et al. (2003) questions whether or not voyeurism is an appropriate term to describe audiences motivations for viewing because cast members are aware that they are being watched and network constraints assure that explicit material does not make it on the air. Rather than the desire to view forbidden or immoral contents, the audience simply sit and enjoy watching other peoples lives and interpersonal relationships. There is also the notion that reality television fulfils the ever growing American obsession with celebrity and stardom. Conlin, (2003, p. 1) avers that by making perceived nobodies into overnight superstars, reality programme seem to appeal highly to a set of American audience who are obsessed with stardom and those who crave for something different from Hollywoods celebrity system. Andrejevic (2005) also notes that part of the appeal of reality programming is the viewers sense of access, or the thinking that the participants in the programmes could just be them. On a more basic level, reality programmes require minimum commitment from its audience. 2.4 Criticisms of reality television programmes The actual realism of reality television (or lack thereof) and its presentation as real has been a subject of criticism. Nabi et al. (2003) found that while viewers perceived the casts of reality programmes to be real, they did not however see events in the programmes to be sufficiently real. Bagley (2001) says that much of what may be marketed to the public as real may actually be a creatively manipulated or faked reality brought about by the process of production and editing. In his criticism of the Real World, Bagley discusses the potentially misleading production practices that attempt to give reality programmes the appearance of being real by borrowing from the documentary style. Real World, one of the first and most taunted prime examples of the reality programming, hold its authenticity to both its means of presentation and by direct statements. Every reality programme begins with the same claim of being original and authentic. In fact, Bagley (2001, p. 62) notes that this is a true story of seven people, picked to work together, have their lives taped and find out what happens when people stop being polite and start getting real Deery (2004) describes the reality genre as postdocumentary. This implies that the genre has been transformed from its parent genre, documentary, but still retains some of its original elements, which are mainly in the form of its production. This semblance to documentary production is what Bagley (2001) refers to as deceivi ng. Real Worlds manner of presentation critically determines its acceptance as faithful documentation of material existenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ with aspirations perfectly coinciding with other forms of nonfiction productionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Being patterned after the television journalistic style, Real World borrows on the confidence that genre provokes in its audience, and manages in the process to evoke its own mystique of authenticity that, in the final analysis, furnishes viewers with the rationale to successfully negotiate the shows authorial ambiguity (Bagley, 2004, p. 61-62). Other scholars (Murray, 2006; Bagley, 2001) have argued that the Shaky, camera being moved about, the normal day light, natural environmental sounds, the cheap production values, the surveillance as well as the interview sections by way of confessions help to further boost the claim that Real World reality programme actually depict reality. Some or all of these presentation tactics can be seen in various other reality television programmes such as Big Brother (CBS) and The Bachelor (ABC). At best, reality television, according to Bagley (2004) is a mixture of fiction and non-fiction. Bagley (ibid) notes specifically that most people, when placed before a camera, perform in one way or another, rather than behaving as they would in their natural settings. Again, the long period of editing which is required to reduce long hours of daily footage down into a 30 minute storyline is done with little objectivity in the mind of the produce. The production process is not influenced by the desire to accurately present situations as they are in their traditional forms of non-fiction media, but rather by a desire to entertain and sell. Bagley (2001) notes that this fact alone discredits the genre as a subjective representation of reality because its purpose goes beyond capturing unmediated human relations and events but has veered i nto the commercial realm. 2.4.1 Third person-perception Other criticisms of reality television have emerged indirectly from studies of third-person perception, and have indicated that reality programmes may be socially undesirable in the minds of audience members. Materials that are not socially desirable have been the focus of some studies conducted on third-person perception (Paul, Salwen, and Dupagne, 2000). As noted by Bissell, Peek, and Leone (2006), numerous studies have supported the idea that people perceive others to be more affected by media messages than themselves, particularly the negative contents. The phenomenon of negative contents has been shown in studies of political campaign messages, political advertising, commercials, rap music, and public service announcements, among other types of media (Bissell et al., 2006). In their 2006 study, Bissell, Peek, and Leone (2006),in a study which examined the perceptions of 640 college students concerning reality television (Real World, Fear Factor and Joe Millionaire) found that the students believed that reality programmes negatively impacted others more than themselves, which the researchers suggested indicated their perceptions of reality television as socially undesirable. 2.4.2 Drama Although it has not been extensively documented, the content of reality television tends to be hyper-dramatized turning seeming unimportant events into crises. This is not surprising, given that its purpose is to entertain audiences. Real World producers carefully select cast members to produc

At the Tomb of the Inflatable Pig :: essays research papers

Introduction Through the eyes of a British man Paraguay is pictured as a country of eccentricity and contradiction, of beguilingly individualistic men and women. As this TP was written my points of view was the most important information source, disagreeing with the author in some of his statements. He describes a dirty country, and in my defence it is not like that. In relation to the title, in the cover of the book is the photo of a pink pig. It does not say why, but I suppose that it would be on sale in the market and called his attention. Or perhaps, the Inflatable Pig was a premonition of its book: Great by outside, emptiness on the inside. AT the Tomb of the Inflatable Pig Is a book about Paraguay written by John Gimlette, an English lawyer who has come here in Paraguay for visit. But from its beginning, the book is full of errors and plagued of hatred towards Paraguay. â€Å"Paraguay is not merely isolated, it is almost impenetrable†, why does he said that? Our country is open to travel in and out, for my personal experience, Paraguay is neither isolated nor impenetrable, and I would travel with no problem at all, if I had the means. Commerce in general terms is good here, we import as much as we export. â€Å"It has become a refuge to Nazis, cannibals, strange sixteenth-century Anabaptists, White Russians and fantastic creatures that ought long ago to have been extinct†. â€Å"The Paraguayans describe their landlocked nation as ‘South America’s Switzerland’. In truth, it is its Cinderella†. I do not know anyone who thinks that Paraguay is the ‘South America’s Switzerland’ as he mentioned. â€Å"A by-product of Paraguay’s strong kinship and oral traditions is that no one agrees on anything. History is largely a matter of opinion†, again, he is completely wrong, why he did not ask some of the good, excellent historians that this country has. It describes the life in Paraguay of that time so excellently that it is peculiar that a man so misinformed as Gimlette that writes a book plagued of errors, has called the attention of the â€Å"elite press†, North American. The book was published originally by Hutchinson in London, in 2002. The U.S.A. version just got out. -- This is the second book recently written by an English about Paraguay. In both, the writers did not scrimp poison.